Table of Contents for Sciences

1. Prerequisites

1.1 Curiosity and Critical Thinking

Curiosity and critical thinking are essential in scientific learning. Philosophy, by fostering questioning and critical analysis, develops these skills. It teaches to distinguish between facts and opinions, and to evaluate information logically, thus enriching the scientific approach.

Table of Contents on Philosophy

2. Introduction to Science

2.1 What is Science?

The Scientific Method is an approach to understanding the world, beginning with observation and questioning those observations. Based on this, scientists propose hypotheses, or initial ideas, which they then test through experiments. They collect data to see if this data confirms or refutes their ideas. After analysis, they may adjust their hypotheses and repeat the process. This methodical approach serves not only to understand natural phenomena but also forms the basis of engineering, which is the practical application of science. In engineering, scientific principles are used to design and build technologies and solutions that meet real-world needs.

2.2 What Can Science Be Used For?

Science can be used for various purposes, reflecting a wide range of interests and needs in society:

• Technological Development and Innovation: Creating new technologies improving various aspects of daily life.
• Improvement of Public Health: Developing medical treatments and understanding diseases for better overall health.
• Protection and Management of the Environment: Understanding ecosystems and developing sustainable strategies for the environment.
• Basic Research: Contributing to the expansion of our knowledge of the universe.
• Politics and Legislation: Influencing public policies and legislation, regarding health, environment, and technology.

2.3 Caveats Regarding Science

Science is influenced by the goals and decisions of various actors. Researchers, facing pressures of publication and funding, may tailor their studies to obtain specific results. Companies, in their pursuit of profit, often develop technologies and drugs, which can sometimes lead to unforeseen risks to health or the environment. For example, some chemicals initially considered safe have been found to have long-term harmful effects. Governments also use science to achieve specific goals, such as the development of weapons or public health programs, where science serves specific national interests. These examples show how the practice of science can be guided and sometimes deviated by various economic, political, and ethical considerations.

3. Methodology of Scientific Research

3.1 How Does the Scientific Method Work?

The Scientific Method is a structured approach to understanding the world around us. It allows us to move from simple observations to solid and reliable knowledge.

3.1.1 Observing and Asking Questions

We begin by carefully observing the phenomenon that intrigues us and asking specific questions about it.

• By observing a clear area without bacteria around a fungus contaminating a bacterial culture, Fleming wonders what substance produced by this fungus inhibits bacterial growth.
• By observing the fall of an apple from the tree towards the Earth and noticing the Moon orbiting the Earth, Newton wonders if the same force acts on both objects, and if so, what is the nature of this force.
• Edison observes the limitations of candles and gas lamps for lighting and seeks a more efficient and durable way to produce light.
• By observing bread in stores or eating it, one may wonder how it is made and what ingredients are necessary.

3.1.2 Formulating Hypotheses

We propose possible explanations for our observations, in the form of hypotheses.

• The fungus produces an antibacterial substance.
• Newton hypothesizes that the force attracting the apple to the Earth is the same force that keeps the Moon in orbit.
• Edison hypothesizes that a filament heated in a vacuum could produce bright and durable light.
• We hypothesize that flour, water, yeast, and salt are the basic ingredients for making bread.

3.1.3 Experimentation

We set up experiments or studies to verify if our hypotheses are correct.

• Fleming isolates the substance produced by the fungus, penicillin, and tests its effectiveness against different bacteria in the laboratory.
• Newton develops experiments to measure the force of gravity between two objects. He uses apples and cannonballs and devises methods to measure the force accurately.
• Edison tests hundreds of different materials to find a filament capable of meeting his requirements. He uses carbon, platinum, bamboo, and many other materials, and develops a system to create a vacuum in a glass bulb.
• We gather the necessary ingredients (flour, water, yeast, salt) and follow a simple recipe to mix the ingredients, knead the dough, let it rise, and bake it in the oven.

3.1.4 Analyzing Results

We collect data during experiments and analyze it to see if it confirms or refutes our hypotheses.

• Penicillin proves to be very effective against a wide range of bacteria.
• Newton analyzes the data collected during his experiments and finds that the force of gravity between two objects decreases with the square of the distance between them and increases with the product of their masses.
• After thousands of unsuccessful experiments, Edison discovers that a carbonized bamboo filament produces bright and durable light in a vacuum.
• We observe that the ingredients transform into a soft dough that, after baking, yields edible or inedible bread.

3.1.5 Drawing Conclusions

Based on the results, we accept, reject, or modify our hypotheses.

• Penicillin is a promising antibiotic for the treatment of bacterial infections.
• Newton formulates his law of universal gravitation, which states that every material object attracts every other material object with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
• Edison invents the incandescent electric light bulb, which revolutionizes lighting and has a profound impact on society.
• We understand that bread making is a simple process involving a chemical transformation of ingredients through fermentation and baking.

3.1.6 Communicating Results

We share and submit our findings for critical evaluation by other expert researchers in the relevant field. This peer review process is essential for validating the rigor of research and the soundness of conclusions. It helps detect any errors, refine analyses, and advance collective knowledge.

• Fleming publishes his results in a scientific journal, and penicillin is later developed and commercialized as a medication.
• Newton publishes his results in his famous work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica," which lays the foundations of classical mechanics.
• Edison files a patent for his invention and founds the Edison Electric Light Company to manufacture and market his bulbs.
• We can share this experience with friends or family to explain the basic principles of bread making and allow them to make their own bread.

4. Mathematics

4.1 What are Mathematics?

Mathematics, an abstract domain founded on logical reasoning, tackles concepts of quantity, structure, space, change, and measurement. It explores these concepts and their relationships through rigorous and formal tools.

Far from being merely an academic discipline, mathematics serves as a universal language for science, engineering, computer science, and finance. It enables modeling of the real world, solving complex problems, and stimulating innovation.

5. Physics

5.1 What is Physics?

Physics is a fundamental science that seeks to understand the laws governing the universe, delving into the study of matter, energy, and their interactions.

From understanding the functioning of electronic devices to mastering nuclear energy, physics has a profound impact on our daily lives and shapes the modern world.

6. Chemistry

6.1 What is Chemistry?

Chemistry explores the composition, structure, and properties of matter, focusing on the transformations that cause it to evolve. It relies on meticulous experimentation and rigorous analysis to break down matter at the atomic and molecular scale and understand the interactions governing it.

It enables the synthesis of substances with novel properties, understanding complex natural processes, and addressing challenges in the environment and health.

7. Biology

7.1 What is Biology?

Biology explores life in all its forms, delving into living organisms, their structure, function, and interactions with their environment.

Biology is a perpetual quest for understanding and admiration for the diversity and complexity of life. It allows unraveling the secrets of evolution, demystifying the mechanisms of the human body, and finding solutions to major health and environmental challenges.

8. Earth Sciences and Astronomy

8.1 What are Earth Sciences and Astronomy?

Earth sciences and astronomy encompass a set of scientific disciplines that explore planet Earth, its spatial environment, and the universe as a whole.

They have significant applications in various fields, including natural resource management, prediction of natural disasters, space navigation, and the search for extraterrestrial life.

9. Computer Science or Information Sciences

9.1 What is Computer Science or Information Sciences?

Computer science, also known as information sciences, is a vast and evolving field of study that focuses on the representation, processing, transmission, and utilization of information. It encompasses a wide range of concepts, techniques, and tools for collecting, storing, analyzing, organizing, visualizing, and communicating information in various forms.